3L 53 

W234 

:opy 1 



TEACHER'S BOOK 

OF 

SUGGESTIONS 

TO ACCOMPANY 

STUDIES OF ANIMAL LIFE 

BY 

WALTER, WHITNEY and LUCAS 



oHHo 



BOSTON, U.S.A. 

D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 

1900 



TEACHER'S BOOK 



SUGGESTIONS 



TO ACCOMPANY 



STUDIES OF ANIMAL LIFE 



^^ WALTER, WHITNEY and LUCAS 



f 






oXXo 



BOSTON, U.S.A. 

D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 

1900 



42887 

l_ibr«ry of Coriarese 

\''>h-o Copies Recti veo 
SEP 4 1900 

Copyright ©ntry 

SECOND COPY. 

Delivered to 

OROtR DIVISION, 

SEP 11 1900 



6S713 

Copyright, 1900 
By D. C. Heath & Co. 






INTRODUCTION. 



There are many problems in connection with the prepara- 
tion and handling of material for the teacher of zoology in 
secondary schools to solve. This is on account of the age of 
pupils and the size of classes as well as the limited amount of 
time available for laboratory work. While every teacher has 
his own methods and must meet and solve his own problems, 
the authors have ventured to place, in the form of this little 
book, certain suggestive notes indicating how they, in their 
experience, have been able to solve some of these problems. 
At the same time it has seemed desirable to present their 
point of view concerning the order and choice of studies and 
also the pedagogical value of each study. 

It will be noted that in the manual microscopic work has 
been reduced to a minimum. Some use of the microscope, 
especially of the low power (50 diameters), is strongly rec- 
ommended. The pupil ought to be taught, however, that the 
compound microscope should be used only after an object has 
been carefully studied with the unaided eye and a lens. This 
should be the invariable rule. Therefore no directions, except 
in a few special cases, have been given telling the pupil when 
to use the lens or Avhen to use the compound microscope. 

If a full equipment of microscopes is not to be had certainly 
one or two microscopes can be obtained, in which case the 
work suggested may be taken up in the form of a demonstra- 
tion. There are also two other means which may supplement 
work with the microscope and to a certain extent take its 
place. These are charts and a projection instrument. 



IV INTRODUCTION. 

The latter may be used to great advantage. The use of ordi- 
nary lantern-slides offers an unlimited opportunity. In zoology 
however, the great value of the instrument lies in its power to 
demonstrate the activity of living animals, e.g. the action of 
cilia, currents of water in Spongilla, the swallowing of food 
in Hydra, etc.^ 

It might be well to speak here of two devices which have 
been introduced to supplement drawings and notes. The use 
of clay (preferably the modelling clay sold under the name 
of plastuline or composition clay) has been found very satis- 
factory. In the hands of the teacher it helps to clear up many 
obscure points and when used by the pupil, as for instance in 
making a model of an Amoeba, it serves to show whether the 
proper conception has been obtained. In the same way cutting 
out paper-models of cross-sections leads to clear, definite ideas 
of relations. By simply studying a cross-section under the 
microscope these relations are not always fully appreciated by 
the inexperienced pupil, but if he is required to cut out the 
center of the model of a cross-section of a Hydra for example, 
he knows that the Hydra is hollow. 

Dissections by the pupil have been omitted. The work in 
many cases is distasteful and in all cases the high school pupil 
is too young to have the patience or the time necessary to 
acquire the skill to make a good dissection. Such work becomes 
simply " cutting up animals " and indeed is spoken of in this 
way by the pupil. Moreover, in a large city school the amount 
of material which would be required for class dissection is out 
of all proportion to the benefits gained. That dissections are 
necessary to demonstrate certain points in anatomy is of course 
true, but such as are used should be made by the teacher and 
put before the pupil in proper shape. 

Permanent x)reparations of microscopic objects should be on 

1 Mr. A. H. Cole, of the Lake High School, Chicago, who has made a notable 
success of this method of demonstration, has in preparation (June, 1900) a 
l)ook entitled " The Technique of Biological Projection.*' 



INTRODUCTION, V 

hand, such as slides of Amceha, sections of Hydra and the 
earthworm. Besides these, such material as hydroid colonies, 
sponges, earthworm dissections, insects, etc., may be perma- 
nently put up in bottles, tubes and glass boxes. The wear and 
tear due to handling being thus avoided, the same material can 
be used from year to year, greatly reducing expense and in the 
long run economizing time. 

For those teachers who may not wish to commence with the 
Protozoa, the studies are so developed that the earthworm may 
be taken first without any change ; or the crayfish or grass- 
hopper, provided a few definitions of certain terms, etc., be 
given the pupil. 

The question of sex has been left largely to the tact of the 
teacher. We do not believe in presenting the play of Hamlet 
with Hamlet left out, but there are serious objections to giving 
this question adequate place in a manual prepared for mixed 
classes of young people. The studies have been arranged in 
such a way that it is hoped no one's false modesty will be 
shocked and it has been left for the individual teacher to make 
any desired additions, rather than to be obliged to pass over 
in silence some parts of the text. 

Certain questions Avhich cannot be answered strictly from 
observation have been introduced throughout the studies in 
order to stimulate thought on the part of the pupil, although 
aid and suggestion from the teacher may often be necessary. 
Questions of this kind have been left unnumbered or placed 
in the sections entitled " Suggestive Questions,'' in order to 
distinguish them from questions of observation. 



TEACHER'S BOOK 

TO ACCOMPANY 

STUDIES OF A:NIMAL LIFE. 

1. THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. 

The object of this exercise is to enable the pupil to become 
acquainted with the instrument as quickly as possible. To 
this end the use of a diagram with the parts named will be 
found helpful, while a sketch or a drawing made by the pupil 
of the instrument itself helps to fix the parts in mind. The 
pupil should have attained considerable skill in the use of the 
low power before attempting to work with the high power. 
For practice in focussing, the use of stained objects is most 
satisfactory. 

E. If permanent preparations are desired, soak small printed 
letters in clove oil and mount in balsam, selecting only such 
letters as appear different when revolved 180 degrees. 

2. THE CELL. 

This exercise, while giving the pupil additional practice in 
the use of the microscope, also leads him to understand the 
morphology of the cell, and aids in the study of the Protozoa 
which follows. The two studies together. give a full conception 
of the cell as the morphological and physiological unit. 

A. The starfish egg, or that of some other echinoderm, is 
recommended, but those of Ascaris, Limax, or some other micro- 
scopic egg may be used. The egg used should be unsegmented. 

B. Use epidermis from an onion bulb, making temporary 
preparations stained with iodine. Since temporary prepara- 
tions are to be used in the next study, time will be saved by 
explaining briefly to the pupil how these preparations are made. 



Vlll STUDIES OF ANIMAL LIFE. 



STUDY I. PKOTOZOA. 



Tlie conception of tlie evolution of life from simple to com- 
plex forms is so fundamental that the most logical vray to 
develop the subject is to begin with the Protozoa instead of 
the higher forms. It is sometimes argued that a course in 
zoology should not begin with the lower forms because most 
pupils are more familiar wdth the higher forms. It is true 
pedagogically that we should always proceed from the known 
to the unknown ; but^ in point of fact, high school pupils are 
not more familiar in any true scientific sense with the higher 
forms. Moreover, to begin with the Protozoa whets the appe- 
tite with novelt}' at the very start. 

The study of the Araoeha has been included out of respect 
to existing sentiment rather than from any conviction of its 
practical usefulness for high school classes. Paramoecium is 
a far better form to study because it is always abundant, com- 
paratively large and so lively that it never fails to engage the 
pupil's interest and attention at once. 

1. AMCEBA. 

A. There are many good methods for the cultivation of 
Anioehie in the laboratory. One is to gather deca3ang lily- 
pads and other pond weeds and distribute them in shallow 
dishes of water. To insure a good growth of bacteria for food 
material, add a small handful of corn to each dish, or steep 
some hay and add to the infusion. In the course of two or 
three weeks, Amoebce will probably be found in some of the 
cultures. When they have once been obtained and used, allow 
the water to evaporate from the material and set it away for 
future cultures. The next time Amoebce are wanted, simply 
add water with hay infusion and an abundant supply will 
reappear in a short time. 

For class work Amoehce may be kept alive on a slide in good 



TEACHEE S BOOK. IX 

conditiou for an iiidelinite time. Mr. A. H. Cole has been very 
successful in doing this by simply keeping the prepared slides 
in a moist chamber. 

F. Stained specimens must be used for demonstrating the 
nucleus. A few slides of Amcebce carefully prepared should 
be accessible to the pupils for comparison with the living 
animal. These may be purchased of dealers in microscopical 
supplies if the teacher has not the time to prepare them. 

G. Since Amcebce are rarely seen in the process of division, 
it is best to rely upon charts and clay models to explain this 
point. 

2. PARAMCECIUM. 

A 2. See note A under Amoeba. 

D. If a little powdered carmine is added over night or even 
for a few hours to a watch-glass full of Paramoecia, it will be 
made up by them into food balls which are very distinct^ espe- 
cially under bright illumination. 

F. Preparations to show nuclei may be made as follows : 
Place a supply of Paramvjda in a test-tube one-quarter full of 
water and till the test-tube suddenly with boiling corrosive 
sublimate from another test-tube. As soon as the dead animals 
settle to the bottom^ decant the corrosive sublimate and wash 
several times in water by decanting. If temporary prepara- 
tions are desired, stain with a iveak water solution of dahlia 
and mount in water. Permanent preparations may be made by 
staining in borax carmine and mounting in balsam according 
to the usual methods. 

G. This may be demonstrated by means of blackboard draw- 
ings, charts, clay modelled by the teacher before the class, or 
by permanent preparations of actual specimens either under 
microscopes or projected on a screen. 

J. The cilia may be readily seen in dahlia preparations 
prepared as above for the nucleus. 



STUDIES OF ANIMAL LIFE. 



3. A COMPARATIVE STUDY OP PROTOZOA. 

This exercise can be made to serve two useful purposes^ first 
that of a review, putting into a compact form tlie essential facts 
concerning the Protozoa and second that of an exercise for the 
study of other Protozoa, such as Vortlcella, Stentor, Euglena, etc. 

STUDY 11. POEIFERA. 

The sponges do not make a thoroughly satisfactory study, 
because little more than the skeletons of these forms can be 
utilized. Spongilla is the only sponge which can be obtained 
inland in a living condition and since it is such a shapeless 
mass it does not possess much interest for the pupils and is 
difficult to handle successfully. By using the three sponges, 
Grantia, Spongilla and Euspongia, in combination, very good 
results can be obtained. Grantia has form and a simple canal 
system, Spongilla is useful for its living s^Donge cells and 
Enspongia for its commercial importance. The pupil will be 
ready to understand the complicated canal systein of Euspongia 
after studying Grantia. 

1. GRANTIA. 

A. See p. XXX. 

B 3, 4. This seems to be a good place for introduciug exact 
scientific measurement. Each member of the class should 
accurately measure his sponge. Then let one pupil record all 
the measurements obtained, on the blackboard in sight of the 
class and compute the average length. This exercise will also 
prove to the pupils the value and necessity of obtaining as 
much data as j)racticable before forming a conclusion. 

C 2. Split the sponges lengthwise and also make thick cross- 
sections with a razor. Place one specimen of each in a small 
straight vial of formalin or clove-oil. The latter clears the 
sections and makes it easier to identify the canals and pores. 



TEACHER S BOOK. XI 

Have enough sections prepared in this way to supply each 
member of the class. It is useful also to have the entire sponge 
bottled in the same manner, since they deteriorate rapidly with 
handling, but always have some unbottled material on each table 
for comparison. 

D 2. For this purpose free the spicules by placing a few 
sponges in a weak solution of caustic potash and mount in 
balsam. It is more satisfactory if the action of acid on the 
spicules is demonstrated by the teacher. 

2. SPONGILLA. 

A. Spongilla may be found in clear ponds and streams on 
the under side of floating logs and. boards or upon the stems 
of water plants. It should be collected just before using, 
since it is difficult to keep alive in the laboratory. 

C. Tease out small bits of the sponge and flatten them under 
the cover-glass. Isolated cells will be found near the margin 
of the mass. Mr. A. H. Cole has successfully demonstrated 
the circulation of water in living Spongilla on the screen by 
using a heliopticon with microscope attachment. The canal 
system of the prepared Orantia may also be shown in this 
way. 

3. EUSPONGIA. 

Select sponges for this study which have not been '' trimmed '' 
and which have well-developed oscula. Such sponges can be 
best obtained at wholesale drug houses in the larger cities. 
The common harness sponges are often suitable. The fibers 
may be mounted in water under a heavy cover-glass. 

STUDY III. CCELEISTTERATA. 

Although this study is confined to very small forms it always 
proves interesting and profitable. There are several principles 
of fundamental importance illustrated by it, of which division 



Xll STUDIES OF ANIMAL LIFE. 

of labor among cells is perhaps the most important and is 
readily appreciated by the pupils. The beginnings of tissues 
may be seen in the ectoderm and endoderm. Eeproduction by 
the fusion of two nnlike cells, namely, the egg and the sperm 
cell, and the subsequent development of the embryo up to the 
gastrula stage are best explained by the teacher at this point. 
The names of the two sexual reproductive glands are intro- 
duced in this study, but future treatment of this topic is left to 
the teacher. 

The hydroid studies are invaluable for showing another 
method of division of labor, namely, the colony, and furnish a 
beautiful illustration of the principle of alternation of gen- 
erations. 

The topics outlined above form themes for talks with the class 
as the outcome of the study and should not be hinted at until 
the pupil has done all the laboratory work and recited upon it. 

The more difiB.cult experimental work upon the Hydra is 
placed at the end of the study. Pupils will meet with varying 
success in trying to solve questions as to how the Hydra moves 
and how it feeds itself, but they should learn to be patient 
investigators and not to expect immediate results from all 
experiments. 

1. HYDRA. 

A. Collect Anacharis and Char a in jars of water from clear 
ponds or slow streams. Distribute this material among many 
shallow and a few deep jars, using enough jars so that each table 
may be supplied with one or more. In the course of a few days 
Hydrce will generally be found on the sides of the jars and 
upon the weeds. In order to be sure of having a good supply, 
collect the material at least two weeks beforehand. 

B. Hydrce may be distributed to the pupils in watch-glasses 
and test-tubes. For large classes the latter are preferable. 
Fill each test-tube with water and add a small sprig of water- 
weed together with a few eutomostracans. Then put in two or 



TEACHER S BOOK. Xlll 

three good Hydrce and cork tightly under ivater in order to 
exclude air bubbles. To keep over nighty or from day to day, 
put the tubes in a cool place, such as running water. Have a 
few slides of Hydroe stained and mounted entire for compari- 
son and for drawing. 

D 1. These cross-sections should be cut thick. 

F and G. Encourage the pupils to investigate these topics 
independently, and devise schemes to demonstrate the prob- 
lems raised. Much interest can be aroused in this way. 

H. Good specimens of HydrcE showing buds and ovaries 
and spermaries had better be killed and mounted in balsam 
for use, in case living Hydrm showing these characters cannot 
be obtained at the right time. 

2 and 3. HYDROIDS. 

Excellent forms of Campanidarian hydroids to study are 
Ohelia or Campanularia. Pennaria or Paryplia are probably 
the most available Tuhidarian forms. If Paryplia is used, the 
compound microscope is unnecessary. Permanent balsam prep- 
arations can be easily prepared which will last for years. It is 
advisable to mount specimens that have been stained under the 
same cover-glass with those that are unstained, in order to 
demonstrate incidentally the advantage of using stains. 

4. HYDRO-MEDUSA. 

Gonwnemus is especially good for this study. It may be 
successfully preserved and kept from year to year in 5% 
formalin. Give the material to the pupil in a vial or in a 
small open glass dish. If the latter is used, -1% formalin will 
prove a safer fluid than water and is entirely inoffensive to 
the pupil. 

B 1 &. Mount a tentacle for demonstration. 

D 1. Here is an ox3portunity to make the principle of 
homology clear. 



XIV STUDIES OF ANIMAL LIFE. 

STUDY lY. ■\t:e:\ies. 

These are the first elongated animals with the mouth at one 
end of the body. The development of head and tail ends, 
dorsal and ventral surfaces, and bilateral sides is a sequence of 
this new type of body. These animals are so simple that there 
is nothing to distract the attention from these important facts. 
Moreover, the first ax^pearance of the body cavity is well shown 
in this tyx^e. The idea of division of labor and differentiation 
of the body, as illustrated in the sponges and Hi/dra, may be 
carried still further here to show how the regions of the body 
and how organs are developed. It has seemed best to take up 
the internal structure of the earthworm. The systems of organs 
are not complex and a knowledge of them is so useful in 
developing the fundamental ideas of physiology that they can- 
not well be omitted. 

It must not be forgotten, however, that the earthworm is a 
degenerate animal, and therefore the study of a marine worm 
is very useful for the sake of contrast between an active worm 
seeking living food, and an inactive worm seeking decaying 
food. 

The Planarian worm makes a connecting link between 
Coelenterates and Annelids. 

1. PLANARIAN WORM. 

^Material for this study, Planaria or DendroaxAum, is usually 
abundant in Hydra-jars. Permanent preparations to supple- 
ment the study of the living worms may be made by killing 
the worms sudderdy in hot corrosive sublimate while they are 
extended, and mounting them, unstained, in balsam after 
dehydration. 

6. The alimentary canal is more easily seen when slight 
pressure is applied to the cover-glass over the living worm. 
The homologies between the Planarian worm and the Coelen- 
terate j)lan of structure, — for instance, the absence of an anus, 
— are left for the teacher to develop. 



TEACHER S BOOK. XV 

2. THE EARTirWORM. 

A 1. The earthworm's relation to the soil gives a good oppor- 
tunity to introduce another phase of scientific observation. 
Most of the pupil's work is confined to question and answer 
from a single observation^ but here the element of time enters 
in. and the results obtained depend ujion continued observa- 
tions. If the studies suggested in A are carefully carried out, 
the pupils ought to gain a new and broader conception of 
"laboratory work.-' Written reports sliould he insisted upon. 

A 2. Immediate results should not be expected, because the 
earthworms will work over the soil before coming to the sur- 
face for other food material. Continue the experiment, if nec- 
essary, longer than the two weeks suggested, being careful to 
keep the surface of the soil moist. 

B. Have both living and preserved specimens at hand for 
the pupils to use. The preserved specimens may be enclosed 
in glass tubes filled with formalin. Use tubes with a bore 
slightly greater than the earthworm, and seal the corks with 
sealing-wax or paraffin. Try to secure the large Lv.nihricus 
terrestris for this study. It may be obtained in the preserved 
form from the Wood's Hole Marine Biological Laboratory 
Supply Company. To preserve earthworms in a straight and 
perfectly extended condition, use the following method. Put 
the worms in a shallow dish of water and stupefy them by 
adding alcohol, a few drops at a time. When fully relaxed 
and incapable of contracting, place them in formalin to harden, 
using a flat, shallow dish. 

E. The use of the girdle as an egg-case should be explained 
to the pujjils. 

F. By allowing preserved earthworms to soften in water, 
the cuticle will become loosened. The specimens may then be 
bottled and used for demonstration. For F 3,* it is convenient 
to make permanent mounts of the cuticle. 

H 1. For this observation, make thick, hand-cut sections of 
worms which have been well hardened. 



XYl STUDIES OF ANIMAL LIFE. 

H 2. Use thick microtome sections, stained. 

H 4. Cut away the dorsal body wall from large, well-hard- 
ened earthworms. This is best done by making lateral in- 
cisions with a razor, after which raise the dorsal wall with 
forceps, and cut it free from the septa. If the dissected worms 
are now enclosed in tubes as directed above (B), they may be 
studied as well as if unenclosed, and cannot be injured by 
handling. 

H 5. Prepare as for H 4, but remove the alimentary canal 
as far as the pharynx and carefully expose the ^^ brains'' and 
collar. It will be found helpful if portions of the nerve cord 
are permanently mounted for a better demonstration of the 
ganglia and lateral nerve branches. 

J 3. Pupils should be cautioned to repeat the experiment 
with light several times. 

K. Omit, or offer as optional, any part of this work which 
is found to be too difficult. 

3. MARINE ANNELID. 

Nereis is probably the most accessible form. 

C. Podarke and Autohjtus are also recommended, because 
either is small enough to be stained, cleared and mounted in 
toto in balsam. Use bits of broken slide as supports for the 
cover-glass, and in each preparation have one Avorm mounted 
dorsal, and another ventral side up. Mounted in this wa}'^, all 
the points emphasized in this study may be seen with either 
1. or 1. p. 

STUDY V. ECHmODERMATA. 

This is essentially a comparative study, the chief value of 
which is morphological. The preceding studies have had for 
a central idea the great problem of '' differentiation. '^ In this 
study opportunity is given for developing the idea of sym- 
metry with especial reference to its relation to habit and 



TEACHER S BOOK. XVU 

methods of locomotion. Dried specimens of starfishes and sea- 
urchins should be furnished, but material preserved in formalin 
is the best. 

C. To prepare specimens of the exoskeleton of the starfish, 
soak portions of the body wall for a day or so in a rather strong 
solution of potash. Then wash and put up in formalin. The 
skin becomes nearly transparent and the arrangement of the 
ossicles is clearly shown. The composition of the ossicles may 
be demonstrated by a test with HCl. 

4. The egg of the echinoderm is very favorable material with 
which to illustrate the earlier stages in the embryology of the 
Metazoa. Make permanent preparations of the various stages, 
and have clay models and charts at hand to aid the pupil in 
understanding clearly the process which actually takes place. 
Demonstrate to the pupils the source of the eggs. Though 
perhaps this subject logically follows directly after the Pro- 
tozoa, yet for practical reasons it is placed here. In any case 
the pupil is better able to comprehend the transition from the 
Protozoa to the Metazoa at this point. 

STUDY VI. ARTHEOPODA. 

The animals comprising this branch exhibit so much diver- 
sity in structure and habits that they could be made to illus- 
trate nearly all the fundamental principles of zoology. The 
idea emphasized here most particularly is the differentiation 
of appendages together with the homologies. 

The number of crustacean studies supplementing that of the 
crayfish should be increased rather than diminished according 
to the material at hand. The great danger of '' type study '' 
is that the pupil is often left with an isolated picture in his 
mind instead of a scientific conception of the fundamental 
ideas expressed by the group from which the type is selected. 

The insects may possibly seem to receive inadequate treat- 
ment, inasmuch as they present so much available material 



XVlll STUDIES OF ANIMAL LIFE. 

and are in many cases of sucli vital interest to man. The 
'' Exercise in Classilication/' however, is of such a nature that 
it may readily be made to cover a great deal of ground. Two 
studies in insect metamorphosis have been inserted, one on a 
very common moth and the other on an aquatic form. 

1. THE CRAYFISH. 

B. Use both living and preserved crayfishes. Large living 
crayfishes can be purchased during their season very cheaply. 
(See note on '^ Supplies.'') Kill crayfishes in the ordinary 
manner with chloroform or boiling water. The latter method, 
although altering the color of the animals, leaves them cleaner 
and more flexible. 

C 6. Have ready for comparison a few somite shells which 
have been removed from the abdomen and freed from muscles. 

E 1. For detailed examination remove a few swimmerets 
and place in watch-glasses filled with weak formalin. 

E 2. Small live crayfishes are best for demonstrating the 
process of swimming. 

F. Remove the mouth-parts from large crayfishes, keeping 
them in sets and place in watch-glasses of weak formalin for 
examination. It is well, also, to have diagrams of these 
appendages, since it is particularly difficult for pupils to 
identify the various mouth-parts. 

G 3. Remove bits of the cornea from preserved crayfishes 
and mount in balsam. 

I. Let the pupils first study the muscles by simply moving 
the abdomen, so as to understand how the muscles must be 
located in order to make the required movements. Then, for 
comparison, have them examine the muscles of crayfishes 
which have been split dorso-ventrally along the median 
line. 

K. While it is difficult to get satisfactory results from some 
of these experiments, it is at least worth while for the pupil to 
make a trial of them, since the effort will lead to many good 



TEACHER S BOOK. XIX 

observations. It is a good thing for pupils to find out that 
some questions which might very naturally be asked may be 
very difficult to answer. Small crayfish, freshly caught and 
handled as little as possible, are best for these experiments. 

K 3 and 4. Experiments for taste and smell should be 
demonstrated by the teacher. Use something like oil of cloves 
and ammonia. Dr. F. C. Waite of the Peter Cooper High 
School, ISTew York City, suggests " dropping water on the 
mouth-parts (no response) and then following with clam juice 
or bouillon at the same temperature, which usually gives active 
response." 

L. This table will be of service in homologizing the append- 
ages and it also makes a good review. 

2. THE CRAB. 

This is a supplementary study, the value of which is greatly 
enhanced by using a large number of different crabs. The 
results of the work should be arranged in tabular form to show 
how animals of the same fundamental plan may yet present 
many striking variations. 

3. THE PILL-BUG. 

The pill-bug, on account of its simple structure and lack of 
differentiated appendages, forms a striking contrast to the cray- 
fish and thus emphasizes the complex differentiation of the 
latter. Live pill-bugs may often be obtained in greenhouses, 
even in midwinter. 

4. THE FAIRY SHRIMP. 

This exercise may be taken up with good results, at any 
time when the living material can be obtained. Such living 
interruptions to a cut and dried program often serve a valuable 
mission. Dredge for Branchipus with a fish-net in ditches of 
stagnant water, whenever and wherever frogs' eggs are found. 
If kept well sui^plied with stagnant water, the shrimps will 



XX STUDIES OF ANBIAL LIFE. 

live for weeks in aquaria. For use as supplementary material 
preserve directly in 5% formalin and for class use put up in 
separate bottles, with a male and a female in each, bottle. 

6. THE MOTH. 

The various stages in the metamorphosis of the moth cover 
a long period of time. The study may be begun in the spring 
or fall and observations carried on at intervals during the rest 
of the year. 

B. Use preserved specimens in bottles. 

D. Moths kept in conhnement will deposit eggs, which 
should be mounted on slides without cover-glasses. 

7. THE MOSQUITO. 

A. The egg-packets of the mosquito may be obtained, even 
in midwinter, from the surfaces of liquid-manure barrels in 
greenhouses and from these eggs, if kept in a jar of stagnant 
water, all the subsequent stages may be developed. 

B and C. Keep on hand permanent preparations, unstained 
and mounted in balsam, to supplement the living specimens. 
It saves work and aids in comparison to mount pupa and larva 
together on the same slide. 

D. Mosquitoes hatched under gauze in the laboratory may 
be killed without injury in a cyanide bottle and embalmed 
directly in balsam, where they will soon clear. Use bits of 
glass as supports to the cover-glass. 

8. EXERCISE IN IDENTIFICATION. 

Provide as large an array as possible of various unnamed 
insects belonging to the different orders. It is desirable for 
the pupils to use material that they have themselves collected. 

These insects may be permanently mounted in shallow 
boxes with glass tops and bottoms and in this form safely 



TEACHER S BOOK. XXI 

handled by successive classes. Stick bits of cork to the glass 
with shellac and pin the insect to the cork. Seal the edges of 
the box with passe-partout paper. 

The table here given may not appear to all entomologists to 
be entirely in accord with modern classifications^ but for tlie 
elementary purpose for which it is designed^ if faithfully util- 
ized, it will be found very useful. 

9. COMPARATIVE REVIEW. 

This comparative exercise is capable of extensive application 
beyond the types already studied by the pupil. It should be 
made out largely from notes already taken, but it is well to add 
at least one or two new forms, — for instance, a spider or a 
milliped. 

STUDY YII. MOLLUSCA. 

To make this study most successful, the three types given 
below must all be used. It is always a most striking fact to 
the novice that the clam and the squid are cousins and a com- 
parison of these two animals makes the pupil appreciate the 
effect that a hard exoskeleton has had in causing the degen- 
eration of the clam. 

1. THE CLAM. 

A. The habitat of the clam is important from its bearing on 
th€ '' central idea.'' As in other exercises, it is expected 
that the teacher will give a brief talk, or better that some 
pupil who has assisted in collecting the material will tell his 
observations to the class. 

B 3. The study of the clam by means of the drawings sug- 
gested, gives good practice in the appreciation and use of 
exact technical terms. 

C 4. Use fragments of the shell of a salt-water clam. The 
" quahog " is preferable. 

F 3. It is best to demonstrate these structures as they are 



XXll STUDIES OF ANIMAL LIFE. 

difficult for the pupil to understand. Prepare a specimen to 
show the siphons. 

H 2. Place sand in the bottom of the aquarium containing 
clams. 

2. THE SNAIL. 

B 2. Have a large chart prepared and hung in the laboratory. 

B 4. Have "• slugs '' (see E) on the tables. 

E. The exercises on geotaxis and phototaxis ^vere sug- 
gested by some similar exercises given by Dr. C. B. Davenport, 
of the University of Chicago, in a course in elementary zoology. 
The material can be obtained at the greenhouses and easily 
kept in the laboratory. For food use lettuce or cabbage. This 
exercise should be in the form of a demonstration, since the 
slugs tire easily and too many specimens would be required 
for individual experiments. 

3. THE SQUID. 

Loligo is probably the most available form. Small squids, 
two inches or so in length, are better for class Avork than 
full-grown specimens, but adult squids should be at hand for 
comparison. 

C. The mantle may be split along the ventral side and the 
flaps pinned back on cork submerged in weak formalin. 

STUDY A'lII. VEETEBEATA. 

For some reasons this is the most difficult branch of the 
animal kingdom to present to large classes successfully. If 
only two of the outlines here given can be taken up, we would 
suggest those on the frog and "living vertebrates.'' The 
latter study is especially profitable if care is taken to fill out 
the table faithfully. For teachers who can devote considerable 
time to the study of vertebrates, the extended use of exercises 

LofC 



TEACHER S BOOK, XXlll 

V. and VI. is recommended. These exercises can easily be 
made to include a large number of animals. 

1. THE FISH. 

The goldfish has been chosen as a type for this exercise 
because it is familiar to the pupil. Its small size makes it pos- 
sible to observe its actions in the laboratory-aquaria, although 
for some purposes young bass is a better form to study, espe- 
cially in the matter of response to stimulus. Prepared speci- 
mens of perch are necessary to make certain points clear, and 
also to use for comparison. Otherwise the study is based 
upon the live goldfish. 

Cob. Use dead perch and tipped bristle. 

C 3 d. Demonstrate using oil of cloves, etc. 

E 2. Have perch prepared to show this. 

F 3. Use perch scales. 

2. THE FROG. 

This study requires the use of both living and dead frogs. 
Live frogs may be purchased at any time in large cities, of 
frog dealers. (See notes under " Supplies.") Frogs may be 
kept alive conveniently in boxes of moist dead leaves in a cool 
place. They also live well if water is kept running through 
their quarters. Frogs should be killed and hardened in 
formalin a few days before using. 

D 6. Prepare a few demonstration specimens by inserting 
bristles into the openings. 

G 1. Cut away all the ventral body wall, removing the heart 
and liver, so that the lungs may be readily seen. 

G 1 a. Use a demonstration specimen to show the inflated 
lung. It is rather difficult to inflate the lungs and the pupils 
will not easily succeed in doing it. 

Gib, Prepare some demonstration specimens of split lungs. 

I. For showing the structures of the abdominal cavity, kill 



XXIY STUDIES OF ANIMAL LIFE. 

the frogSj cut a^vay the entire ventral body wall and harden in 
formalin for a few days. If prepared in this way, the organs 
will be firm and tough for handling. 

J. Remove the heart and liver. 

J 3. Preparations of the split stomach and intestine should 
be prepared and placed in bottles. 

J 5. The study of the prepared sections needs to be supple- 
mented by blackboard drawings or charts to make the structure 
of the glands clear. 

K. Use a few specimens from which the heart, liver and 
intestine have been removed. 

L. Eemove all the organs of the body cavity to expose the 
nerves. 

M. Place the frogs in 10% nitric acid for a few days to 
make the bones cut easily and harden the brain and cord. 

N. Prog skeletons are quite easily prepared by removing 
the flesh from the bones, leaving only the ligaments to hold 
the bones together. These skeletons may be mounted on card- 
board, or better in glass boxes similar to those suggested for dis- 
playing insects. 

Note. — The circulatory system is not given a place in this study, 
except as parts of it are seen in connection with other organs. It is more 
desirable for the teacher to demonstrate this part of the work, for the 
reason that it is too difficult for the pupils to undertake successfully 
without more experience in dissection. 

3. TADPOLES. 

During the spring and summer, collect as many stages as 
possible, put up in formalin and arrange in sets for class use. 

4. BIRD SKINS. 

Some apology is needed for the study of a bird's skin in this 
manual. It is not presented as an adequate study of birds, 
but as the best thing that can be done with large classes in a 



TEACHER S BOOK. XXV 

laboratory. Wliat may be done with volnnteer pupils is indi- 
cated under '^ Bird Migration '' on p. xxvi. 

F. Use tail- or wing-featliers of a pigeon or chicken. 

5. VERTEBRATE EXOSKELETONS. 

B. Do not remove the scales from the body except in the 
case of the salmon. In this way a small amount of material 
can be made to answer the purpose. (For dealers^ see notes 
under ^' Supplies.^') 

C. Have two or three species of turtles at hand if possible. 

D. For the general study, use live pigeons, and for the de- 
tailed study of the wing and single feather, have a few wings 
and tail-feathers of the chicken or pigeon. 

E. Any mammal will serve as a basis for this study. For 
the hair, a large drawing may be used to advantage instead of 
the section. 

6. LIVING VERTEBRATES. 

Collect as much of a menagerie as possible and give ample 
time for this study. Ask the pupils to supplement it with a 
home study of whatever pets they may have — as dogs, cats, 
canary-birds, etc. 

7. MAN. 

Although this exercise is not strictly laboratory work, yet it 
is inserted with the object of opening up to the pupil's mind, 
through the application to man of some of the principles de- 
veloped in the preceding studies, new avenues of philosophical 
thought. It will be found an excellent basis for class discus- 
sion and also for the most elaborate essay of the year. The 
principle of ^^ division of labor" may be applied with good 
results by asking each pupil to contribute towards a composite 
essay one paragraph, upon which his best effort is to be ex- 
pended. See that the pupils copy this essay in its complete 
form to file in their note-books. The questions are framed 
rather for the apprehension than the comprehension of tiie 
pupil. 



XX Yl STUDIES OF ANIMAL LIFE. 



BIRD MIGRATION. 

Few schools are so located that the migration of birds can- 
not be studied to a certain extent. Field study of the spring 
migration has been successfully undertaken in several of the 
Chicago high schools. The following, quoted in part from The 
School Weekly, Chicago, of Feb. 16, 1900, is an explanation of 
one ivay in which this work may be managed. 

Each year early in February an announcement is made that 
four talks will be given on " How to Identify Migrating Birds.^' 
These talks on successive Saturday mornings are one hour long. 
At the first one a mimeographed check-list following the 
American Ornithological Union of one hundred and twenty- 
five birds liable to be seen is given out, and specimens of the 
first thirty birds seen the preceding spring are exhibited. 
These birds are then taken up, one by one, in the order of 
their arrival and checked off on the list, and, at the same time, 
whatever peculiarities they possess that will enable one to 
identify them when they are seen alive are pointed out to be 
noted down by the pupil. These notes are made as brief 
and diagnostic as possible, the one object — identification on 
a second meeting — being kept constantly in mind. The re- 
mainder of the birds are taken up in like manner in the suc- 
ceeding talks. About the middle of March the teacher begins 
to meet those pupils who wish to observe the migration, at 
some appointed place an hour or so before school, and the 
best laboratory work of the year commences. Usually after a 
pupil goes out two or three mornings, the divine spark kindles 
and then the thing goes of itself. The contagion spreads and 
nothing can stop it. Each pupil keeps a daily list of the birds 
he sees. Meanwhile at school a bulletin is kept posted as 
indicated on the next page, which is a potent ornithological 
missionary among the unregenerate. 



TEACHER S BOOK. 



XXVll 



THE SPRING MIGRATION OF 1899. 



1^0. 


Common Name. 


Scientific Name. 


When first seen. 


By whom 

FIRST 
IDENTIFIED, 


EOOM. 


Genus, 


Species. 


Month. 


Day. 



















Later, when the interest demands it, a personal balletin as 
follows, is posted : — 

BIRD CLUB. 

This List shows the Number of Wild Birds identified this Spring 
IN Lincoln Park. 



Date. 


Name of Pupil. 


Room. 


Number, 











Of course the teacher must be the final judge as to whether 
certain birds reported were really seen or not. In order to 
make the list as reliable as possible, all doubtful cases are left 
off. After a few failures to have a bird " put on the list '' on 
account of insufficient data, the pupil learns to become more 
accurate in description and painstaking in observation. A use- 
ful aid in this work is a series of excellent colored photographs 
of native birds, which is being published by A. Mum ford, 
203 Michigan Avenue, Chicago, price two cents each ; also port- 
folio of colored drawings by Ernest Seton Thompson, accom- 
panying ^^ Studies of Bird Life,'' by Frank M. Chapman, and 
imblished by D. Appleton & Co. In cities this field work on 
bird migration may be done in parks with very good results. 



XXVlll STUDIES OF ANIMAL LIFE. 



MUSEUM WORK. 



Many city schools are located within reach of some musenm 
and it should be within the scope of an elementary course in 
zoology to utilize such an important aid. A trip to a museum 
is of most value when something definite is mapped out and it 
should not be permitted to degenerate into simply a pleasure 
excursion. Xaturally the details of such an exercise depend 
entirely upon the teacher and the museum. A typical exer- 
cise^ wdiich was successfully used in a study of mammals at 
the Chicago Academy of Sciences, is partly outlined on the 
next page. Each pupil, upon arriving at the museum, was 
given a mimeographed copy of this outline and required to 
spend one hour upon the study. The work at the museum 
was followed by a lively recitation. The registering of the 
time of arrival and departure, together with the teacher's 
countersign, were simply devices used in a large class to 
insure the performance of the work individually. 



TEACHER S BOOK. 



XXIX 



A MUSEUM EXERCISE ON MAMMALS. 



Name of Pupil. 


Time of Arrival. 


Time of 
Departure. 


Countersign by 
Teacher. 











DIEECTIONS. 

1. Eill in the two left-hand spaces on arrival, and have the teacher fill in 

the two right-hand spaces on departure. 

2. As soon as you have examined a specimen enough to recite upon it, 

check it off on this list. 

3. Omit nothing. 

4. Begin anywhere. 

6. Make notes of important points. 

6. Work in small groups. 

7. Ask questions. 

8. Keep this paper to file in your laboratory book. 

Class MAMMALIA. 



Order. 


Specimen. 


Notes. 


Monotremata 


Duck-bill 




Echidna 




Marsupalia 


Kangaroo 




Opossum 




Edentata 


Armadillo 




Glyptodon 





(The list here begun was made complete for the Mammals.) 



XXX STUDIES OF ANIMAL LIFE. 



SUPPLIES. 

The folloT\dng is a partial list of dealers who furnish mate- 
rial needed for these studies. 
Marine Biological Laboratory Supply Co., Wood's Holl, Mass. 

(Marine animals and some fresh-water animals, such as Lumbricus 

terrestris.) 
Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, Cold Spring Harbor, Long 

Island, Xew York. 

(Marine animals.) 
H. H. & C. S. Brimley, Raleigh, X.C. 

(Marine and fresh-water animals. Vertebrates a specialty. 

They also furnish live animals to order and keep a large stock 

of bird skins.) 
B. F. McCurdy & Co., 818 E. 71st St., Chicago, 111. 

(Live frogs and other animals to order.) 
Jacob Fontz, St. Michaels, Md. 

(Live frogs and other animals to order.) 
Ad. Kirschhoff, 278 E. Division St., Chicago, 111. 

(Crayfish a specialty. May be safely shipped anywhere alive 

from April 1 to November 15.) 
R. P. AVoodford, 517 Pulhnan Ave., Pullman, Chicago, 111. 

(Will prepare laboratory demonstration material to order, such as 

skeletons of frogs, dissections, insects in glass boxes, etc.) 



TEACHER S BOOKo XXXI 



SOME USEFUL MANUALS. 

Bumpus, H. C. Invertebrate Zoology. Henry Holt & Co., New York, 

1892. (Marine Forms.) 
Brooks, W. K. Handbook of Invertebrate Zoology for Laboratories and 

Seaside Work. Cassino, Boston, 1882. 
Dodge, C. W. Introduction to Elementary Practical Zoology. Harper & 

Brothers, New York, 1894. 

Huxley & Martin. Practical Biology. Revised by Howes & Scott. 

Macmillan & Co., New York, 1887. (Hydra, Mussel, Snail, 

Earthworm, Crayfish, Frog.) 
Kingsley, J. S. Comparative Zoology. Henry Holt & Co., New York, 

1898. (Text accompanies laboratory work.) 
Sedgwick & Wilson. General Biology. Second edition. Henry 

Holt & Co., New York, 1895. (Protozoa and Earthworm.) 
E-iley, C. Y. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Insects. Smith- 
sonian Institution, Washington, D.C., 1892. Price, 25 cents. 
Comstock, J. H. & A. B. A Manual for the Study of Insects. Com- 

stock Publishing Co., Ithaca, N.Y., 1895. Price, $3.75. 
Parker, T. J. Zootomy. Macmillan & Co., New York, 1883. 

(Vertebrates.) 
Gorham & Tower. A Laboratory Guide for the Dissection of the Cat. 

Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1895. 
Lee, A. B. Tlte Microtomist's Vade Mecum. Fourth edition. J. & A. 

Churchill, London. 
Parkhurst, H. E. How to Name the Birds. Charles Scribner's Sons, 

New York, 1898. (A field manual for identifying birds.) 
Chapman, Frank ]\I. Handbook of Birds of Eastern North America. 

D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1899. (A more complete manual 

with field keys and table of migration showing time of arrival 

and departure.) 



^^uU 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



iliiill 

005 392 779 8 



il. 



